EVALUATION OF THE INSTITUTIONAL AND SITUATIONAL NEEDS

Abstract

Japanese schools establishing adult education programs need information on the educational needs of suburban shufu (housewives). The purpose of this study was to assess those needs. The two research questions were, “What situational and institutional needs of suburban shufu must be assessed in order to establish an educational program for them?” and “What are these needs?” A problem solving evaluation research methodology was used. Procedures involved a review of literature, establishment of criteria, developing a focus group interview plan, collection of data, and analysis. Two focus groups of shufu were interviewed in Takatsuki-shi, Osaka. Results revealed that the subjects shufu are most interested in studying are Computer, English, Nutrition, Environmental Problems, Elder Care, Child Psychology and Dance. The classes need not be non-accredited; could be held once or twice a week on weekday mornings or afternoons; be 90 to 120 minutes long; and should be priced between ¥20,000 and ¥30,000.

ABSTRACT IN JAPANESE

SHUFU IN THE EDUCATIONAL ARENA:
AN EVALUATION OF THE INSTITUTIONAL AND

SITUATIONAL NEEDS OF Japanese Housewives

INTRODUCTION

Japan’s junior colleges are in a crisis. As a result of demographic changes and changes in attitudes towards Tandais (two-year women’s colleges), junior colleges are suffering from a severe decrease in enrollments (Kelly, 1998, 1999). According to one source, the survival of some seventy junior colleges is at stake (personal communication, Mitsuo Nakamura, December, 1999). Furthermore, Japan is currently suffering its worst economic crisis since World War II, and a large number of workers have been displaced. Therefore, in order to find a new source of students, and possibly even redefine their role in education, a number of junior colleges are looking into the possibility of establishing educational programs for adults.

Unlike the United States, however, Japan is still relatively inexperienced in adult education, and the knowledge base is limited. Only a handful of Japanese colleges offer classes for adults, and there is little data on their educational needs. Although certain indicators suggest that local adults will enroll in continuing education courses if offered (Kelly, 1998), there is no concrete data on who will enroll, in what classes, at what time of day, and for what price. And yet, research on the adult education boom that occurred in America in the 1980’s clearly indicates that without this kind of information, schools that attempt to establish adult education programs have a high rate of failure (Cross, 1981; Knowles, 1990). Therefore, prior to establishing adult education classes, the educational needs of adults, must be assessed.

Adults likely to enroll in continuing education classes form three demographic groups: (1) kaishain, meaning full-time workers; (2) shufu, meaning housewives, or middle-aged women without full-time jobs, and (3) toshiyori, meaning retired adults over the age of 65. Of these, it is generally believed that the shufu are the most likely candidates for junior colleges, since their educational programs are traditionally oriented towards women. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to assess the continuing education needs of shufu living in the Takatsuki City, Osaka area. Identification of these needs will provide Japanese colleges with appropriate information to aid the establishment of adult education programs for shufu.

Research Questions

There are two research questions for this study: (1) What situational and institutional needs of Takatsuki shufu must be assessed in order to establish an educational program for them? (2) What are these needs?

Definition of Terms

For the purposes of this study, several terms need clarification.

Adults. Adults are defined as men and women who are both twenty-five years or older (Cross, 1981) and self-directed (Knowles, 1990).

Shufu. The term “shufu” can be directly translated as “housewife.” For the purpose of this study, the term refers to all adult Japanese women living away from their parental homes; who are, or have been, married; who are not employed full-time; who are not full-time students; and who are younger than 65.

Takatsuki. Takatsuki refers to a city in Osaka prefecture, Japan. It is a middle-class suburb of Osaka City.

LITERATURE Review

This study focused on the needs of shufu; in particular, their institutional, situational, and dispositional needs (Cross, 1981). Therefore, five topical areas were examined in the literature review: (1) related theories in adult education, (2) Japanese women’s studies, (3) adult education in Japan, (4) needs assessment, and (5) group session methodologies.

Related Theories in Adult Education

The majority of the research on adult participation patterns was done in the 1970’s and can be found in Cross’ still widely-used summary, Adults as Learners (1981). She notes three areas of obstacles to participation: situational, and institutional, and dispositional barriers (p. 98). Situational barriers refer to the obstacles in one’s life situation, such as a lack of money, a job, or home responsibilities. Institutional barriers refer to the institution’s practices or procedures that may restrict participation, such as an inconvenient schedule, high fees, or inappropriate course offerings. Dispositional barriers refers to attitudes towards oneself as a learner, which tend to be negative among older adults. or those with less prior education. Carp, Peterson, & Rolf (cited in Cross, 1981, p. 99) found that the primary situational barriers for US adults were high cost, lack of time, home responsibilities, and job responsibilities. Institutional barriers were not as severe, but included not wanting to go to school full time, requiring too much time to complete a program, class times, and lack of information. Dispositional barriers were the least severe, but included the notion of being too old to learn and failure at school in the past.

Obviously, these barriers can be conversely viewed as needs (Freedman, 1987; Hanson, 1991; Jarvis, 1995; Queeny, 1995), and adult needs are not fixed, but change across time, particularly as the primary activities of life change. Studies based on the life span perspective (Bee, 1996) have been conducted to better understand this process of change. As Alan Rogers (1996) points out, “if learning is a process of personal changes made in adapting to changed situations and experiences, the study of different patterns of life is likely to throw light on such learning” (p. 54). Changes through adulthood, especially those related to sociological factors have a major impact on “learning readiness” (Cross, 1981, p. 238). As life progresses, adults enter different sociological situations, such as marriage, child-rearing, adjusting to aging parents, etc. Consequently, they must face an ever changing series of “developmental tasks,” knowledge that is required in order to pass from one developmental stage to the next (Knowles, 1980, p. 51). Havinghurst (cited in Knowles, p. 52) presents a chronological list of such developmental tasks, categorized as early adulthood (ages 18-30), middle age (ages 30 - 55), and later maturity (ages 55 and over). The list includes tasks such as adjusting to marriage, caring for aging parents, etc.

In relation to educational practices, Malcolm Knowles (1980, 1990) identified three factors that differentiate the non-dependent personality, or adult, from children. They have: (1) more experience, (2) a greater need to be self-directing, and (3) a greater interest in life-centered topics. Thus, rather than being “students” who are “taught,” adults are commonly referred to as “learners” who are “facilitated.”

Japanese Women’s Studies

Certain models in life span theory, such as Sheehy’s roles and crisis points theory (cited in Rogers, 1996, p. 59), are well-suited for women in Japan. Developmental studies on Japanese women are still few, and many are framed in a feminist political perspective (Fujieda & Fujimura-Fanselow, 1995). Yoshizumi (1995), Ohinata (1995), and Sodei (1995) write about changes in three areas related to developmental tasks for shufu: marriage, motherhood, and care of the elderly.

Caring for elderly parents at home, is a common role for Japanese shufu, but due to medical and societal changes, it is becoming increasingly difficult. In view of the fact that the number of elderly is increasing more rapidly in Japan than in any other Western country (Statistics, 1996), and that over two thirds of Japanese aged sixty-five or older are still living with their children or grandchildren (Sodei, p. 219), elder care has become the single greatest problem that shufu face.

Adult Education in Japan

That the US experienced an adult education boom in the 1980’s is well-documented (Jones, 1997, March/April), but adult education programs are still rare on university campuses in Japan. Prior to 1994, there were less than 4000 adults in Japanese universities (Monbusho - Ministry of Education, 1999), a minuscule number by US standards. A number of factors, however, indicate that Japan might be on the verge of an adult education boom. In particular, certain causal factors, such as the passing of the demographic bulge from school to work, the displacement caused by the restructuring of the Japanese economy, higher levels of prior education, and greater individual wealth, when combined with facilitating factors, such as government legislation promoting adult education, indicate that Japan might experience a boom as great, or even greater, than the one that occurred in America in the eighties (Kelly, 1998, April). It is unclear what subject areas Japanese adults will study, but research with Americans suggests that the majority will be interested in work-related subjects (Cross, 1981), or English (Kelly, 1992).

Needs Assessment

A needs assessment is finding the gap between what is and what ought to be. The gap might exist in the learner as a deficiency state (Kemp et al., 1996), or at the organizational or societal level (Nowlen, 1980). In relation to program planning, needs assessment is "a decision-making tool for continuing educators' use in identifying the educational activities or programs they should offer to best meet their clients' – and society's – educational needs" (Queeny, 1995, pp. 1-2).

In 1991, Robert Simerly published a study on the ten most negative reactions to adult education programs. Examination of these complaints shows that most are related a problem that could have been prevented by needs assessment. The complaints that “the program did not meet my expectations,” “the program was not practical enough to help me in my home situation,” and “ I did not get good pre-program service” (p. 47) are of particular interest, because these reveal problems that were arose from misunderstandings about the situational and institutional needs of the participants.

A review of the literature shows that there are eight basic methods of needs assessment, including: intuitive methods, such as brochure scanning (Cameron, 1988, January; Nowlen, 1980; Queeny, 1995); market analysis (Cameron, 1988, January); sample classes (Nowlen, 1980); surveys; self-assessment (Queeny, 1995); diagnostic approaches (Nowlen, 1980); performance analysis (Cameron, 1988, January); and interviews or group sessions (Caffarella, 1994; Nowlen, 1980). No method is completely reliable, especially the commonly-used interest surveys (Nowlen, 1980). One’s “felt” needs, or wants, are not always the same as one’s real needs (Freedman, 1987). In fact, research shows that the content areas requested are often not the areas of greatest need (Queeny, 1995). A general questionnaire usually consists ticking off a list of topics the respondents would like to know more about. However, according to Nowlen, “Several studies have shown that the high-frequency topics are also the most familiar ones and that when programs are actually offered, the highly popular topics do not necessarily receive the highest enrollments” (Nowlen, 1980, p. 32). As a result, curriculum design in continuing education is often subject to the whims of the population.

“…a common observation about Extension catalogs is that they describe a kind of cafeteria offering, a smorgasbord of unrelated programs, with a menu that is constantly changing in accordance to ephemeral tastes and fads” (Freedman, 1987, pp. 52-53).

Group Session Methodologies

Witkin and Altschuld (1995), and Morgan (1997) provide detailed instructions on how to conduct needs assessments with groups. In addition to specialized methods, such as DACUM and Delphi, more basic methods are provided as well, such as the community technique for large groups; and the nominal group technique and the focus group interview for small groups.

The focus group interview is commonly used for product evaluation, but can also be used for ethnographical studies (Morgan, 1997) and needs assessment (Witkin & Altschuld, 1995, p. 171). As Morgan (1997) points out, the general rules of thumb for planning a focus group is to have 6-10 participants who are “homogeneous strangers,” and conduct 3-5 groups per project (p. 34). However, these are just guidelines and actual group parameters are greatly influenced by the type of information to be obtained. Small groups work better when the participants are respectful of each other, and they have a high degree of interest in the topic. Morgan reports use of only 3 participants where 6 would have been unmanageable (p. 43).

The number of groups to be used can be determined during the course of the research, with the research being ended when “saturation” occurs, meaning that the researcher can adequately predict what the next group will say (Morgan, 1997, p. 43). Heterogeneity in the population and less structure in the interview approach generally requires more groups, while homogeneity and structured questions requires fewer. Still, for purposes of comparison, a minimum of two groups is required. Using only one group creates a problem of much greater magnitude than using two. “Even when there are data from just two groups, if what they say is highly similar then this provides much safer ground in concluding that group dynamics were not responsible for this content” (p. 44).

Tape recording the focus group is a common technique, as is the use of a moderator, but where the data is not complex, it can also be collected by being written down (Krueger, 1994). Data analysis is usually done through coding, with the three most common ways being: (1) all mentions of a particular code, (2) determining which participants mentioned the code, and (3) determining whether each group’s discussion contained the code (Morgan, 1997, p. 60). Interpretation means looking for emphases, which can be determined objectively, such as in the data analysis methods mentioned above, or subjectively, such as observing how much energy and enthusiasm the topic generated in the group.

METHOD And procedures

The purpose of this study was to determine the situational and institutional needs of suburban shufu in order to develop an adult education program. Therefore, an evaluation problem solving methodology was used. Evaluation methodology “can be effective in determining specific needs and using them to focus development of approaches for inclusion in the design (or redesign) of programs” (Varcoe, 1994, p.9). Criteria were established first, which represented the information to be sought, a focus group interview instrument was made, and then the interviews were conducted.

Six procedures were used to complete the study. The first three procedures, (1) the review of the literature, (2) establishing criteria, and (3) validating the criteria, addressed the first research question: What situational and institutional needs of Takatsuki shufu must be assessed in order to establish an educational program for them? The last three procedures, (4) planning and validating the interview procedure, (5) conducting the interviews, and (6) analyzing the data, addressed the second research question: What are these needs?

Three Japanese, a professor and two Takatsuki City Lifelong Education Program officials served on a formative committee to establish the criteria and develop the instrument. Three other Japanese educators, involved in adult education program planning, served on a summative committee to validate the criteria, and three Nova Southeastern University doctoral students, also doing evaluation research with focus groups, served on an committee to validate the instrument. In accordance with their input, the evaluation criteria and focus group interview instrument was revised and validated.

Two focus groups of Japanese shufu were recruited and the interviews held. The main purpose of the first was to obtain basic information, and the purpose of the second was to add more information and confirm the results of the first group. The two groups were recruited separately in the Takatsuki City area and were interviewed for two hours each on October 13, 1999, and November 2, 1999. The first group consisted of four shufu ; and the second, of eight. The first group was slightly older in age than the second, and the shufu in second group were all mothers of nursery school children.

Using the validated instrument, each interview session started with a greeting, a thank you, an explanation of the purpose of the meeting, and introductions. Then, a predisposition discussion was held for about ten minutes in which the women were told the researcher’s view of adult education and invited to respond. Following the predisposition, the women were asked to spend a few minutes quietly thinking about what subjects they or other local women might be interested in studying and to write them down. Their ideas were then polled, written on a blackboard and the women were asked to rank them. Similar procedures were used to collect data on the remaining three criteria, involving time schedules, accreditation, and prices.

Finally, data from the two interviews were analyzed. “Qualitative data analysis is primarily an inductive process of organizing the data into categories and identifying patterns (relationships) among the categories” (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993, p. 479). Procedures used to code the data and identify patterns were based on Morgan’s suggestions (1997, p. 60): (1) All mentions of a particular code were recorded and the codes were listed in the results. (2) Codes generated in the polling phases were counted for frequency. (3) Codes mentioned in both groups were marked. (4) Rankings or other data structures determined through consensus were recorded.

Since the results of the two focus groups showed a high degree of correlation, it was determined not necessary to conduct further focus group sessions. This decision was based on the methodological considerations found in the literature (Kruegar, 1994; Morgan, 1997).

RESULTS

The review of literature revealed that shufu are a likely to seek further education over the next decade, and that identifying their institutional and situational barriers to adult participation are critical to program success. Many of the barriers suggested by the literature coincided with those that might arise if a junior college were to open an adult education program for shufu, so these barriers were used to establish the draft criteria. After revision through face-to-face meetings by the formative committee and validation by the summative committee, the final criteria were: (1) determine the subjects shufu are most interested in studying; (2) determine the most appropriate time schedules for classes, including times of the day, length in minutes of one class, times per week to meet, and duration in weeks; (3) determine the need for accreditation; and (4) determine what prices the shufu are willing to pay.

The data gathered in the two focus group sessions answered the second research question: “What are these needs?” In the first focus group interview, only four of the five women invited were present, but the interview was conducted successfully. There were some difficulties recruiting members for the second interview, so participants were finally recruited from the mothers bringing their children to the Heian Jogakuin nursery school. The Japanese co-facilitator could not attend the second interview, but one of the participants volunteered to record answers on the board and the interview was tape recorded for later analysis. The participants ranged in age from early twenties to early fifties and all reported that they were housewives and mothers of middle-class economic status. None had full-time jobs but most of the members in the first group, since their children were older, had part-time jobs or did volunteer work.

The results of the interviews are listed in Tables 1 through 4. Table 1 shows the ranking of study subjects according to the number of respondents who mentioned them in the polling phase.

Table 1

Ranked Responses for Category 1: Class Subjects Shufu are Interested in Studying

Topics Mentions Topics Mentions

* パソコン (Computer)	7	薬剤 (Pharmacology)	1
* 英語英会話 (English)	6	陶芸いけばな (Pottery and flower arrangement)	1
* 食生活 (Nutrition)	4	ステンドグラス (Stained glass)	1
* 介護 (Elder care)	4	スペイン語 (Spanish)	1
*心理学／人間コミュニケーション(Psych/Comm.)	2	司書 (Library Studies)	1
* 環境問題と健康 (Environment & health)	2	新聞の読み方 (How to read newspapers)	1
* 家の構造＆デザイン (Housing & int. design)	2	旅行 (Travel)	1
運動／体育 (Physical education, exercise)	2	料理 (Cooking)	1
書道 (Japanese calligraphy)	2	ペン習字 (Western callig.)	1
日本の裏の歴史 (Japanese history)	2	ガーデニング (Gardening)	1
子供との関係心理 (Child Psychology)	2	ダンス (Social dance)	1
フラワーアレンジメント (Flower Arrangement Western style)	2	カラーコーディネート (Color coordination)	1
文学 (Literature)	2	ボランティア (Volunteer)	1

Note: Topics mentioned in both groups are starred.

Table 2 shows how the shufu ranked the study subjects. There was a high degree of correlation between the study subjects they included in the top five, but the rankings differ slightly. Only Dance and Child Psychology were not included by both groups. The second group chose Child Psychology, while the first group did not, because all the members in the second group were mothers of young children. The only major difference in the rankings was with English. The first group put it at the top of the list, while the last group put it at the bottom.

Table 2

Consensus-Based Rankings for Category 1: Class Subjects Shufu are Interested in Studying

Focus Group 1, n = 4

Focus Group 2, n = 8

1. English

2. Computer

3. Food and Environmental problems

4. Elder care

5. Dance

1-2. Computer & Environmental problems (tied)

3-4. Elder care & Child psychology (tied)

5. Nutrition

6. English

Table 3 shows the consensus responses for class condition categories 2 through 8. Again, the correlation between the groups was rather high. Both groups agreed that classes should be held Monday through Friday in mornings or afternoons when they have the fewest household duties. The first group gave a slight preference to afternoons, because some shufu have part-time jobs or do volunteer work in the mornings, while the second group gave a slight preference to mornings over afternoons because they were all mothers of children attending morning nursery classes.

Both groups stated that 60 minutes would be too short for a class, suggesting 90 or 120 minutes instead; and both groups said that they would be busy with their children during summer and spring breaks and preferred a schedule that fit the standard school year. Neither group thought that being offered credits was necessary, unless the credits were required to get a government certificate or license.

Table 3

Consensus-Based Responses for Categories 2-8: Class Conditions

Category	Focus Group 1, n = 4	Focus Group 2, n = 8
2. Best days for classes	Monday through Friday	Monday through Friday
3. Times of day the classes should be held	1) Afternoons (3-5 pm) 2) Mornings (10-12 am)	1) Mornings (10-12 am) 2) Afternoons (2-4 pm)
4. Minutes for one class meeting	120 minutes (60 minutes is too short)	90 minutes (60 if twice a week)
5. Times per week to meet	1. Once a week 2. Twice a week	1. Once a week 2. Twice a week
6. Duration in weeks of one class	10 weeks (but with continuing after that)	From 10 to 20 weeks
8. Accreditation	not necessary	not necessary

Note: Numbers preceding responses represent first and second choices.

Table 4 shows the consensus responses for category 9, the prices shufu are willing to pay. Again there was a high degree of correlation.

Table 4

Consensus-Based Responses for Category 9: Prices Shufu are Willing to Pay

Prices that would be:	Focus Group 1, n = 4	Focus Group 2, n = 8
Cheap (yasui)	Under ¥20,000	¥15,000 and under
Reasonable (futsuu)	¥20,000 -¥25,000	¥20,000 - ¥30,000
Expensive (takai)	¥30,000 and over	¥30,000 and over

The results are limited in that they are specific to the needs of shufu living in middle-class suburban neighborhoods like Takatsuki. They cannot be generalized with certainty to other groups of shufu living in other areas. The assessment is also limited in that it only assesses the educational needs relevant to classroom education, such as situational, and institutional needs, and not holistic educational needs.

DISCUSSION

The results of the focus groups indicate that the shufu studied were interested in going back to school and that they were able to identify their own situational and institutional needs. In fact, the high degree of enthusiasm observed and some of the comments made in the predisposition and discussion phases support the prediction that Japan might be on the verge of an adult education boom similar to the one that occurred in America in the 1980’s (Kelly, 1998, 1999).

Both the results that showed a high degree of correlation between the two groups, and the results that did not, support the claims in the literature that adults have specific needs and that many of these needs are influenced by sociological situations. There were two differences between the groups. First, they were recruited from different areas; and second, although the first group was in middle adulthood, as defined by Havinghurst (cited in Knowles, 1984, p. 52), the second group was in early adulthood. Therefore, the two groups faced different developmental tasks. These developmental differences can be linked to the two instances where the results did not correlate between the two groups, and thus support Cross’ claim (1981) that sociological situations are the major cause on learning readiness and situational needs: (1) The second group, composed entirely mothers of nursery school children, included Child Psychology as a desired subject of study, while the first group, composed entirely of mothers of grown children, did not; and (2) while the second group showed a slight preference for classes in the morning, the time of day when their children are in nursery school, the first group showed a slight preference for classes in the afternoon, since mothers with grown children might have part-time jobs in the morning. Still, the high degree of correlation between the groups reflects the homogeneity of shufu (Fujieda and Fujimura-Fanselow, 1995).

The study subjects the shufu said they are interested in also support the theory from the lifespan perspective that developmental tasks determine interests. The majority of the topics listed in Tables 2 and 3 can be related to the developmental tasks described by Yoshizumi (1995), Ohinata (1995), and Sodei (1995), which involve managing families, tending homes, raising children, and caring for aging parents. Other responses, such as Computer, are not directly related to these tasks, but assuming shufu want to learn computer skills for reasons related to work, personal study, or even leisure activities, then the response still supports Knowles’ theory (1980, 1990) that adults have a greater interest in life-centered topics.

The reason why the shufu chose “English” as one of their major interests is less clear. On the surface, English study has little relation to any of the developmental tasks a shufu might face, and yet, English is so pervasive in Japan, it is more subtly related to all. Since children study English in school, a concerned mother might also study English in order to tutor her child. Few shufu take jobs that require English skills, and yet there are few jobs in Japan that do not have some kind of interaction with the outside world. And then, there is also the possibility that shufu are interested in English for purely social or psychological reasons (Kelly, 1992).

Results from the questions on ideal class conditions correlate well between the two groups, and coincide with two findings from Carp, Peterson, & Rolf’s study on the primary situational barriers for US adults (cited in Cross, 1981, p. 99). Like Americans, Japanese shufu also face problems with home and job responsibilities, but unlike the Americans, the shufu in this study do not seem hampered by cost, or lack of time. In fact, their consensus that ¥25,000 would be a reasonable fee for a ten week class, is slightly higher than what most junior colleges charges its traditional students.

Conclusions

In relation to the first research question, it was concluded that criteria for assessing shufu situational and institutional needs were discovered in this study. The criteria were: (1) determine the subjects shufu are most interested in studying; (2) determine the most appropriate time schedules for classes, including times of the day, length in minutes of one class, times per week to meet, and duration in weeks; (3) determine the need for accreditation; (4) determine what prices the shufu are willing to pay. These criteria were used to develop the instrument to collect the data, and to make the framework for analyzing the data. It was concluded that these criteria were relevant in that in planning educational programs for Japanese shufu, their situational and institutional needs should be given a high priority in both the development and evaluation of such plans.

In relation to the second research question, it was concluded that the institutional and situational needs of Takatsuki shufu were identified. In relation to study subjects, it was concluded that Computer, Elder Care, English, Environmental Problems, Nutrition, Child Psychology, and Dance, are the topics they are most interested in studying. However, the first group’s choice of Dance as a favorite study subject, despite only one shufu initiating the idea, suggests that the method of needs assessment used in this study cannot be all-inclusive. It was therefore also concluded that it is likely that there are other subjects that the shufu would be interested in that none of them thought of. In relation to class conditions, it was concluded that 90 to 120 minute classes, held once or twice a week on weekday mornings or afternoons, would best fit shufu needs. A class should last 10 weeks or more and should be scheduled to fit the standard academic year. Accreditation is only necessary if the class is required for a government certificate or license. As for the price of such a class, between ¥20,000 and ¥30,000 is reasonable. It was also concluded that the needs identified are related to the sociological situations of the shufu, and the developmental tasks they face.

Implications

The study provides a number of implications. At the same time Japanese colleges are facing decreasing enrollments among traditional students, there are strong indicators that more and more Japanese adults will return to education in the near future (Kelly, 1998, 1999). The results from this study support this notion and suggest that if junior colleges were to offer shufu classes on topics that they are interested in, they would probably sign up. If for no other reason, these schools should at least open a couple pilot classes to test the waters. After all, this is what American colleges did in the 1970’s, and for hundreds of them, it represented the first step in the change from serving a predominantly traditional, to a predominantly non-traditional, student body.

However, as the conclusions of this study imply, serving shufu does not mean just opening more of the same kinds of classes that exist now. Shufu have different needs than those of the 18 and 19-year old women currently enrolled in junior colleges, and their attitude towards education is different as well. Whereas the current students are somewhat of a captive audience, shufu will not be. A recurring theme in the literature is that when adults do not feel their needs are being met, they leave. The shufu in this study have painted a clear picture of their needs, and these are needs that junior colleges cannot meet under their current systems of departmental autonomy, and curricula based on instructors’ perceptions of needs, rather than the participant’s perceptions.

Interestingly, the most popular subjects amongst shufu represent offerings from the typical departments of a junior college. Heian Jogakuin College, typical of this type of school, has four separate departments, specializing in English, home economics, child care, and social work. The five or six subjects they ranked as most desirable were spread across all four departments with each department only able to offer only one or two: English by the English Department, Elder Care by the Christianity (social work) Department, Nutrition and Environmental Problems by the Home Economics Department, Child Psychology by the Early Child Care Department. The remaining subject, Computer, is a Heian course offering that doesn’t belong to any of the departments, but rather, is classified as general education. Therefore, it can be concluded that a collaboration between the departments is more likely to lead to a succesful program than just having one department, such as the English Department, offer a program.

As for class conditions shufu prefer, they are surprisingly similar to the conditions most junior colleges use for their traditional students: 90 minute classes that: meet once or twice a week, on weekdays, in mornings and afternoons, last 12-14 weeks in length, and are not held in March, summer, or at the end of the year. Furthermore, the price the shufu designated as reasonable, about ¥25,000, close to what traditional students pay. Unlike traditional students, however, shufu do not require credits for their studies, but not having to offer accredited classes would lighten the administrative burden rather than make it heavier. This does not mean, however, that a junior college can put shufu into the existing classes. Both the literature and the results suggest that shufu should be given their own classes rather than mixed in.

This study could serve as a springboard for the initial efforts in establishing such a program, but it should not serve as the final study. Since it can be presumed that shufu, like other adults, are particularly sensitive to changes in situational and institutional factors, their needs should be assessed on a periodic basis and any existing program should be continuously evaluated. On the other hand, as the Dance result shows, needs assessment should not be the sole driver in curriculum design, or as Freedman (1987) puts it, mandated to the “whims of the population” (p. 53). A few other courses not identified through needs assessment should also be offered on an experimental basis. Like Dance, there might be other popular subjects that the target audience did not, or could not, think of.

Recommendations

Finally, it is recommended that additional research be conducted on the situational and institutional needs of adults. Other potential adult markets should also be assessed, particularly kaishain and toshiyori, since their needs might differ from those of shufu. It is recommended that qualitative methods be used with those groups as well, although structured interviews could be used instead of, or in addition to, group sessions. Surveys should also be developed. Combining qualitative results from small groups and quantitative results from the larger population will allow triangulation, and provide a grander view of the landscape of adult needs.

Indeed, not conducting needs assessments before planning a program means risking low participation or alienating potential students. Since, for many adults, especially Japanese, entering an adult program might be their “last gamble on education” (Szczypkowski, 1980, p. 38), these risks are too high to take.

REFERENCES

Bureau of Statistics (1996). Statistical handbook of Japan: 1996. Tokyo, Japan: Statistics Bureau, Management and Coordination Agency, Government of Japan.

Caffarella, Rosemary (1994). Planning programs for adult learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Cameron, Catherine (1988, January). Identifying learning needs: Six methods adult educators can use. Lifelong Learning, 11, 25-28.

Cross, K. Patricia (1981). Adults as learners: Increasing participation and facilitating learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Elias, J, & Merrian, S. (1995). Philosophical foundations of adult education. (2nd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing.

Elkind, D. (1988). Reviewing the expectations: The “generation gap” revisited. NASSP Bulletin, 72 (506), 34 - 41.

Ellis, T., & McElhinney, J. (1993, ). Facilitating professional, ethical development: Beyond Kohlberg, Gilligan, Perry & Fowler. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Annual Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference (12th, Columbus, Ohio, October 13-15, 1993) A Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education, Columbus, Ohio.

Freedman, Leonard (1987). Quality in continuing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Fujieda, Mioko, & Fujimura-Fanselow, Kumiko (1995). Women's studies: An overview. In K. Fujimura-Fanselow & A. Kameda (Eds.), Japanese women: New feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future (pp. 155-180). New York, NY: The Feminist Press.

Jarvis, Peter (1995). Adult & continuing education. (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.

Jones, Robert (1997, March/April). The new workplace and lifelong learning. Adult Learning.

Kelly, Curtis (1992). The hidden role of the university. In P. Wadden (Ed.), A handbook for teaching English in Japanese colleges and universities (pp. 172-193). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Kelly, Curtis (1998, April). Adult education: Do trends in America foreshadow trends in Japan? The Language Teacher, 22(4), 25-30.

Kelly, Curtis (1999). The coming education boom in Japan: Demographic and other indicators that suggest an increase in the number of adults seeking education. Japanese Society, 3, 38-57.

Kemp, J., Morrison, G., & Ross, S. (1996). Designing effective instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Cambridge.

Knowles, Malcolm (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species. (4th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.

Krueger, Richard (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

McKeachie, W. J. (1994). Teaching tips. (9th ed.). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.

McMillan, James, & Schumacher, Sally (1993). Research in education: A conceptual introduction. (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins.

Monbusho - Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture (1999). Statistical abstract of education, science, sports and culture: Monbusho. Tokyo, Japan.

Morgan, David (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Nowlen, Phillip (1980). Program origins. In W. S. Griffith & H. Y. McClusky (Eds.), Developing, administering and evaluating adult education . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ohinata, Masami (1995). The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan. In K. Fujimura-Fanselow & A. Kameda (Eds.), Japanese women: New feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future (pp. 199-231). New York, NY: The Feminist Press.

Queeny, Donna (1995). Assessing needs in continuing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Rogers, Alan (1986). Teaching adults. (2nd ed.). Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Simerly, Robert (1991). How to avoid negative reactions to programs, Mistakes made and lessons learned: Overcoming obstacles to successful program planning (Vol. 49, pp. 43-55). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Sodei, Takako (1995). Care of the elderly: A women's issue. In K. Fujimura-Fanselow & A. Kameda (Eds.), Japanese women: New feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future (pp. 213-228). New York, NY: The Feminist Press.

Szczypkowski, Ronald (1980). Objectives and activities. In W. S. Griffith & H. Y. McClusky (Eds.), Developing, Administering and Evaluating Adult Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Varcoe, Kenneth (1994). Evaluation methodology. Fort Lauderdale, FL: Programs for Higher Education, Nova Southeastern University.

Yoshizumi, Kyoko (1995). Marriage and family: Past and present. In K. Fujimura-Fanselow & A. Kameda (Eds.), Japanese women: New feminist perspectives on the past, present, and future (pp. 183-197). New York, NY: The Feminist Press.